Sxcc habashi

Linked together by affiliation with one of the five original mon- asteries, the local Lingayat math thus extended deep into many aspects of village life in Karnataka. Saiyid Ahmad Khan. Tucson, Arizona R. Very few families lived within the walls: it had remained a desolate waste from the time of its fall to within the last half century, Sxcc habashi. Iranians and Arabs coming directly from the Persian Gulf, on the other hand, tended to retain their attachments Saxei xxx video the Middle East.

IO Bijapur Plateau to the Coming of Islam acterized Lingayat bhakti when it expanded in the twelfth century, Sxcc habashi, social distinctions gradually crept into the movement.

A second hindrance in interpreting these Sufis is the image of pious quietism commonly and mistakenly associated with Sufis in general, which conflicts with the militancy of the Sufis considered in this chapter. Delhi,p. The second and numerically most important group of Deccanis was composed of settlers from North India. The rest of Fuck gay and sister Hindus, Sxcc habashi, having ac- cepted tributary status, made peace.

Shocked by the extravagant wealth and power of the Abbasid caliphate and struck by the apparent contradiction between the imperial worldliness of an opulent Caliph of Islam and the stern commandments of the Prophet Muhammad, Sxcc habashi, the first Sufis were true ascetics.

On the other hand it is quite possible that Sufi Sarmast, as an armed Sufi ad- venturer accompanying a North Indian army, did attempt con- versions in the manner often considered typical for Islam — by the sword. If the Sufi had been associated with one of the early armies of Delhi, both his having settled in the hill fort of Sagar and his having received military assistance from several Afghan commanders become plausible. I am deeply indebted to him for the advice he freely rendered during all phases of my graduate career and for the careful criti- cisms Sxcc habashi gave during the research and writing phases of my work, Sxcc habashi.

Even if only some of Sxcc habashi were so inclined, Sxcc habashi, how and why might they have done it? Although some authorities have placed it at the end of the seventeenth century36 the change would seem to represent a more prolonged process. Urdu lith. Sathyan, ed. This stage the tariqa stage saw the formation of mystical schools that had begun to coalesce around one or another master. We know that Sufi Sarmast is buried in Sagar, 8 a hill fort located approximately seventy miles east of Bijapur, Sxcc habashi, and that according to this passage he died in the year And we can also use nonhagiographic sources to check certain points mentioned in the tazkira.

Browne, A Literary History of Persia [4 vols. In the Saka year [a. Between and 13 it, then, both the Yadava Sxcc habashi the Hoysala dynasties, as well as another contemporary dynasty in the eastern Deccan, the Kakatiyas of Warangal, had been defeated and pillaged, though not yet annexed, by the Delhi Sultanate. The tazkiras invariably make reference to events, persons, or places that were not necessarily intrinsic to the lives of the Sufis but that can be checked against other, non- hagiographic, sources for their accuracy.

The aim of this study, then, Sxcc habashi, is to bridge the hiatus FERste time vergen to Sxcc habashi, to the extent possible, who these Sufis were and what kind of social roles they played in medieval Sxcc habashi society.

Burhan al-Din Husaini, Faruq Husaini, and Saivid Murtaza Qadiri, all of whom are residents of Bijapur and descendants of prominent Sufis there, Smoking crackers provided me with many rare manuscript sources handed down to them by their forefathers.

The Turkish and Iranian cases mentioned above indicate that the Warrior Sufis of Bijapur were not unique in the militant roles they played in the early fourteenth century. The only other tazkira treating the biography of Sufi Sarmast extensively, the Waqi'at-i Mamlakat-i Bijapuralso gives him an Arab origin, in fact locating his origins in Samaria where he is said to have been a noble, and giving him a lineage stretching back to the Caliph 'Umar, Sxcc habashi.

But all these are numerically insignificant compared with the number of tombs and Sxcc habashi of Sufis, the Muslim saints of Bijapur. For translations of the poetry itself see MacNicol, Psalms. The first problem, the Sxcc habashi between the Sufi and his recorder, is heightened by the nature of the recorded sources themselves. When all these things were ready according to his wishes, innumerable crowds rallied around hint — outwardly sufis Sxcc habashi murids, Sxcc habashi, but inwardly rebellious demons; he issued to them arms from his arsenal, and they were all obedient to him — youths, robust and warlike, sword-slashers in clever fighting.

In support of this interpretation one could cite the likelihood that the date of the 8 G. Elliot and Dowson, History of India, Sxcc habashi, in, p. The timing of their migration to Bidar is noteworthy, for the year represented a significant turning- point in both the political and religious history of the Bahmani Kingdom. How could highly devel- oped traditions of Middle Eastern mysticism have been translated in terms meaningful to illiterate non-Muslims of the Deccan? The third Sufi order to attain significance in Bijapur, though to a somewhat lesser degree than either the Chishti or Qadiri orders, Sxcc habashi, was the Shattari order.

Abridged English edition: Elliot and Dowson, eds. Second, the existence of a once-thriving Sufi tradition in and around the city, manifested by the sheer number of Sufis who lived there as well as by the extent of written sources concerning them, made Bijapur a par- ticularly fruitful area for research of this kind.

Of all the Sufis of Bijapur those who appeared in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries are perhaps the most difficult to understand. Thousands of pil- grims from all over the Deccan plateau will, on these occasions, throng to Bijapur and join local devotees in the celebrations that have made such dargahs the focus of popular Islam throughout India.

When such cross-verification of data is found — the occurrence of accu- rate historical information in the hagiographic literature or of hagiographic information in the historical literature — the re- searcher can assume that the accounts of the lives of the Sufis have been preserved in an Sxcc habashi form. By that time, Shattari Sufis of Gujarat had adopted a doctrinal and social posture quite similar to that of Qadiri Sufis in spite of the different origins of the two orders.

In this way lin- guistic frontiers between Maharashtra and Karnataka Sxcc habashi given, Sxcc habashi, by the beginning of the thirteenth century, political reenforce- ment. Whether مصريه ترضع طفلها of feelings of depend- ence on the Persian courtly model, or because of depiction among the ranks of the original settlers, or both, Firuz Sxcc habashi sought recruits from overseas.

It is pos- sible to conclude, then, that the widespread popularity of vernacu- Bica Marathi poetry and the official acceptance of that language by the government must have gone far in integrating Marathi-speak- ing peoples living outside the upper Godavari core region into the entity now known as Maharashtra.

These differences of doctrine were powerfully reinforced by sociological and political factors. One possibility is that the hagiographic traditions such as the one quoted above were unknown to Arnold and that he had available to him only the Gazetteer version.

Both music and dance were im- mensely popular among Chishtis and were used either individually or collectively to induce states of spiritual Sxcc habashi. The classical approach, in a word, stresses not the Sufi but Sufism, Sxcc habashi, not the man as a social component but the doctrine as conveyed by the man. Should the sovereign permit, Sxcc habashi, they would begin the holy war against the Cherkes.

Finally he died in the year a. The Malik gave him a field, at the village of Bitur, the measurement being 24 nitans with 24 cubits Sxcc habashi made it free from taxes and obstructions, Sxcc habashi. Sxcc habashi of these Sufis arrived directly from the Arab world, Sxcc habashi, 33 The bargaining that took place between the court and foreign Sxcc habashi could almost be seen as a special branch of diplomacy.

Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my colleagues and good friends Mrs. Jane Ragsdale, Dr. Joseph Brennig, and Miss Katherine Ewing, whose careful reading and critical comments of various drafts of this study proved of im- measurable value. Moreover the relationship between Sxcc habashi Khandayat, Sufi Sarmast, Shaikh 'Ali Pahlavan, Sxcc habashi, and Pir Jumna on the one hand, and their murids on the other seems to have resembled that of Isma'il and his followers in the murids' double role of spiritual disciples Sxcc habashi warriors.

The final two points concern Muhammad Ghaus s instructions on social ethics. Over the course of the first half of the four- teenth century, Sxcc habashi, however, both waves of Sxcc habashi seem to have lost their ties with North India, which in part led to their declara- tion of independence from the Delhi Sultanate in The new sultanate thus established was the Bahmani Kingdomwhich held sway over most of the Deccan plateau north of Vijayanagar from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal.

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Upon close examination, however, these terms are found to be not at all mutually exclusive, but in fact identical when placed in proper context, Sxcc habashi. The hagiographic literature relates the conflict that followed his arrival at Bijapur: It is said that in the time that arrogant infidels, surly Hindus and powerful and vain rajas ruled [Bijapur] by force, he came here and waged jihad against the rajas and rebels.

It is, then, to the formation of these states that our attention must now turn, Sxcc habashi. Among historians of North India Sir Jadunath Sarkar has contributed most significantly to our understanding of Bijapur. For there appears a suicidal quality about the penetration of a militant Sufi in territory which, though politically frag- Sxcc habashi, was still dominated by non-Muslims. The sultan thus came to believe that Sufis, instead of devoting themselves to a cult of personal worship of God, should be active in the propa- gation of Islam among non-Muslims.

We know that Sufi Sarmast is buried in Sagar, 8 a hill fort located approximately seventy miles east of Bijapur, and that according to this passage he died in the year And we can also use nonhagiographic sources to check certain points mentioned in the tazkira.

On the one hand they commissioned scholars to write commentaries on the Vedic classics; on the other they supported the bhakti movements of the Sxcc habashi Deccan — Lingayatism and Vaisnavism — by making frequent journeys to popular shrines and by granting both shrines and temples lavish endowments in land and cash, Sxcc habashi.

Differentiated schools of discipline meant that Sufis now belonged to one or another order, as op- posed to the Sxcc habashi khanaqah phase when they were socially un- differentiated. Still others belonged to no order at all. But the Sufi bond of Isma'il to his followers was snapped, it has been argued, when the Ottomans inflicted upon Isma'il and his Turkoman armies a crushing defeat Sxcc habashi Battle of Chaldiran.

Placed in a disturbed social and political context, namely Dar al-Harb, these Sufis usually emerge waging jihad holy warslaying countless infidels against over- whelming odds and, more often than not, being themselves slain and martyred in the process. Yet they did, Sxcc habashi, in his own estimation, make him a Sufi. Then, too, by the mid- fourteenth century the city of Bijapur was beginning to pass from a remote outpost on the edge of the Islamic frontier to a small center of Islamic culture in its own right, Sxcc habashi.

From Samaria this account traces his travels to Mathura in North India, Sxcc habashi, and from there to Sagar, adding that he was accompanied on this last journey by 1, palanquins of Sufis — certainly a hyperbolic expression indicating his affiliation with the general movement of settlers and armies from North India to the Deccan in the early fourteenth century.

Some belonged to two or more Sxcc habashi simultaneously; others 9 Ibid. Finally the raja was slain by the hand of his daughter. During the period of 'Ala al-Din Khalaji, Sxcc habashi, the Shah of Delhi, he accompanied the camp of the army of Islam in the year a. While this development occurred in all parts of the Islamic world, it did not occur simultaneously. Of the many writings on the early Chishti Sufis of Delhi, see especially K. Nural Hasan,ch, Sxcc habashi.

Contact with scholars of this high caliber, coming as it did in the formative stage of my research in India, proved of immense value in direct- ing my energies to fruitful sources of inquiry.

Abridged English edition: John Briggs, trans. But who were the Sufis that were buried in these dargahs? In these circumstances Bijapur did not attract foreign Sufis, at least not those belonging to urban orders.

In Malik Kafur raided and sacked Warangal in the eastern Deccan, and in 13 11 he launched the most ambitious expedition yet: a march completely across the Bijapur plateau down to Dwarasamudra, the Hoysala capital, Sxcc habashi, and to the Pandya dominions in Ma'bar adjacent to Sxcc habashi Lanka.

Finally there were the contemporary histories, memoirs, and travel accounts, which shed a good deal of indirect light on the Sufis of this study, Sxcc habashi. When this data — the 2 Trimingham, Sxcc habashi, Sufi Ordersp, Sxcc habashi.

Nonetheless, people who took the vow considered themselves Sufis and were considered as such by their contem- poraries. Tazkira-yi Auliya, i, Sxcc habashi, Sxcc habashi. The fourth and fifth points reflect a characteristic that was becoming common to most Sufi orders in their full-blown tariqa phase: what had begun in the khanaqab phase as a murid's respect for his pir was now de- veloping into a slavelike submission to the master.

The ascetics of the eighth century were followed in. Since by nature he was fundamentally not combative, Sufi Sarmast spread the religion of Muhammad and befriended the hearts of Hindus, Sxcc habashi. The vehicle that brought most of the Warrior Sufis to this part of India was the large-scale Muslim military expeditions to the Deccan, which began in 1 and continued Sxcc habashi through the first half of the fourteenth century.

I 2 12 Arrival and Settlement of Sufis tern seems to have become well established along the coastal littoral, Sxcc habashi, for in the renowned world traveler Ibn Battuta described much the same sort of Muslim colonies further south, Sxcc habashi, in Malabar, Sxcc habashi.

Saiyid Ahmad Khan, Sxcc habashi. The ardent theism of bhakti cults usually found expression Sxcc habashi popular devotional hymns. Lingayat bhakti was there- fore Saivite, while most other bhakti movements, such Sxcc habashi the Vithoba cult, were Vaisnavite. See Krishnaswami, South India, p. Whereas in its earlier phases of evolu- tion Sufism had been confined to a tiny spiritual elite, Sxcc habashi, it had now broadened to become a popular Sxcc habashi in which the unlettered masses could freely participate.

In the Saka year [a, Sxcc habashi. Although the Turkoman Shi'as were rural and tribal in orientation, and as bands of armed tribesmen represented a potential threat to the stability Grany as a housegirl the state, the official Shi'a ' ulama class was urban and state oriented, and represented above all the very stability of the Safawi theocracy.

It is therefore likely that when Pir Ma'bari Khandayat separated himself from the army Sxcc habashi which he was so clearly associated, Sxcc habashi, the local population would hardly have welcomed him. Furthermore, the Iranian newcomers seem to have taken full advantage of the Persianized cultural orientation of the court, revived by Sultans Firuz and Ahmad, by flaunting a feeling of superiority over the Deccanis. If the Sufi whose life is being described forms the center of a Sxcc habashi saint-cult having masses of devotees who regularly par- ticipate in the Sxcc habashi functions associated with Sxcc habashi tomb, it is fair to guess that tazkiras written about that Sufi, as Trimingham wrote, would exist primarily to serve that cult, and would conse- quently be distorted.

Persian MS 2 vols. Other tombs, less grandiose than those for the monarchs, were constructed for members of Sxcc habashi upper nobility, talented artists, architects, and musicians. I am greatly indebted to Professor M. Akbaruddin Siddiqi, for- merly of the Urdu Department, Osmania University, Hyderabad, for making available to me his fine collection of Dakhni manu- scripts and for helping me in their translation, Sxcc habashi.

Four groups of Deccanis can be distinguished. The court no longer patronized Chishti Sufis. Placed in a disturbed social and political context, namely Dar al-Harb, these Sufis usually emerge waging jihad Sxcc habashi warSxcc habashi, slaying countless infidels against over- whelming odds and, Sxcc habashi, Sxcc habashi often than not, being themselves slain and martyred in the process.

The very nature of the pir-mirid system, by which disciples could become khalifas who in turn could make more disciples, insured that the total number would multi- ply. Persian edn. There was no formal bond between the master and his pupils, the latter frequently being itinerant dropouts from the orthodox society of the Abbasids.

One way to resolve these contrasts is to dismiss the historicity of most of the account and interpret what resulted in the written narrative as a garbled confusion of hagiographic and political traditions. In fact this is one aspect of the account that accords perfectly with what one might expect to find operat- ing in a political and social frontier zone such as the fourteenth- century Bijapur plateau. Shaikh Ni'mat Allah again declined, pleading that he had but one son.

Moreover the relationship between Pir Khandayat, Sufi Sarmast, Shaikh 'Ali Pahlavan, and Pir Jumna on the one hand, and their murids on the other seems to have resembled that of Isma'il and his followers in the murids' double role of spiritual disciples and warriors.

If the Chishti tradition had ceased functioning in Delhi by being too unyielding before a hostile court, Sxcc habashi, it ceased functioning in Sxcc habashi bv being too pliant before a generous court. The point is that while all tazkiras consist of oral traditions that at some time were written down and that require, therefore, the same caution with which one ap- proaches any oral tradition, it Sxcc habashi not true that all tazkiras served a saint-cult and were distorted on that count.

But this does not make the situation hopeless. Abridged English edition: H. Elliot and J. Dowson, eds. The chronology of the Sxcc habashi described here also contains problems. Members of the Sunni 'ulama were also recruited Sxcc habashi Dilawar Khan, Sxcc habashi, not from overseas, but from Gujarat and the Sxcc habashi. The government came to persecute non-Turkoman as Big dicks make girls cry as Turkoman Sufi orders, culminating in frequency and severity with the reign of Shah 'Abbas I Sunni orders such as the Naqshbandi were suppressed soon after the Safawi consolidation of power in Iran, Sxcc habashi, while suppression of Shi'a orders such as the Ni'mat Allahi followed somewhat later, Sxcc habashi.

See G. We have noted that the renowned Chishti Sufi of Gulbarga, Sxcc habashi, Saiyid Bandanawaz Gisudaraz, died in the same year that the Bahmani government moved its capital to Bidar, and that the Chishti tradition in Gulbarga died with him. While Chishti doctrine rested fundamentally on the pantheistic monism of Ibn 'Arabi, a doctrine never in line with strict Islamic orthodoxy, the Qadiri order espoused from its beginning the orthodox point of view within Sufism.

Sir Hamilton Gibb has made some significant observations regarding the relationship between the ghazi, or Sxcc habashi warrior, and the Sufi in the fourteenth century. But it is by no means necessary to dismiss as inspired fiction the entirety of this literature. In the first instance, the rise of Indo-Muslim city-states meant that Sxcc habashi of the orthodox Muslim establish- ment, and not wandering Sufis, could be called upon to declare jihad if and when battles of state required such legitimization.

According to such an interpretation certain facts and legends per- Sxcc habashi to the officers or sultans of Delhi, particularly 'Ala al-Din Khalaji, Malik Kafur, and Muhammad bin Tughluq, became through centuries of oral transmission attributed to some real or fictitious Sufi. T his was عراقي مراهقين the reason that this phase witnessed the intro- duction of astrology, magic, belief Sxcc habashi talismans and charms, Sxcc habashi, and other forms of superstition as means of preserving the flow of barakat from the saint, who occupied the central position in the cult, to the devotee.

From a doctrinal standpoint this second phase of Sufi development was characterized by the gradual sys- tcmization of mystical techniques designed to bring the Sufi Sxcc habashi direct communion with God.

Thus the Qadiri order silsila-tariqa is traced to its founder, Abd al-Qadir Jilani Sxcc habashi. But with the accession of Sultan Firuz Bahmani 1 a change occurred. This in turn gave rise to a whole Aroma hotel class of individuals who by virtue of their blood descent from a saint could claim special spiritual status. The chronology of the events described here also contains problems.

For granting me permission to make photographs of certain miniature paintings in their collections, Leak and finger acknowledge thanks to the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad Figures 7, 8, and 12the Idara-e- Adabivat-e-Urdu in Hyderabad Figure 3the Archeological Museum of Bijapur Figure 9and Mr.

Aqa Haidar Hasan of Hyderabad Figure 2. Since these raids had been steadily pushing Maharashtrian and Telugu warriors from defeated dynasties in the northern Deccan to the southern Deccan, especially the region immediately south of the Tungabhadra River in Karnataka.

For with the coming of the Bahmani Sxcc habashi Bijapur kingdoms there tfame a period that was mainly peaceful, at least by contrast to the intense chaos that had characterized the Bijapur plateau in the early fourteenth century.

Tasks were also distributed among inmates: collecting wood for fuel, preparing food, writing out documents such as amulets ta'wizor attending the pir, Sxcc habashi, around whom all affairs of the khanaqah, Sxcc habashi, both spiritual and temporal, revolved.

Since death on Jihad was the only sure passport to Paradise, it came about that in the early days ascetics had generally taken a promi- nent part in the frontier warfare. As the founder of a rebel kingdom in the Deccan detached from his ancestral roots in North India, Sxcc habashi, the first Bahmani sultan, 'Ala al-Din Hasan 1needed any support he could muster for consolidating his initially tenuous hold over the Deccan plateau.

There these transplanted warriors began reestablishing African high schools lesbian as the ruling elite for new warrior-states, Sxcc habashi. As the prince left, another visitor, 'Ala al-Din Hasan, Sxcc habashi, the future founder of the Bahmani Kingdom, was waiting at the gate. From Samaria this account traces his travels to Mathura in North India, and from there to Sagar, adding that he was accompanied on this last journey by 1, palanquins of Sufis — certainly a hyperbolic expression indicating his affiliation with the general movement of settlers and armies from North India to the Deccan in the Sxcc habashi fourteenth century.

Dodwell, ed. Early Sufis applied the term to the inward and spiritual struggle against the temptations of this world as well as to the war against non-Muslims, although with the stabilization of the Islamic frontiers Sufis gradually withdrew from frontier warfare, Sxcc habashi.

On the one hand they commissioned scholars to write commentaries on the Vedic classics; on the other they supported the bhakti movements of the central Deccan — Lingayatism and Vaisnavism — by making frequent journeys to popular shrines and by granting both shrines and temples lavish endowments in Dffccg and cash.

It seems to have been at this time that Sxcc habashi city of Bijapur, formerly the southernmost provincial seat of the Yadavas and called by that dynasty Vijayapura City of Victorypassed from I lindu to Muslim rule. For both theo- logical and historical reasons Muslims of the Shi'a sect have at various times Sxcc habashi the propagation of Sxcc habashi brotherhoods.

For in its later form, the institutionalized vow of allegiance had begun carrying with it an increasing amount of ritual and a diminishing amount of mystical knowledge.

As it happened, the reign of Shah 'Abbas I coincided almost exactly with that of Sultan Ibrahim IIwhose enthusiasm to adorn his Sxcc habashi with Sufis of all orders has already been mentioned. It should be noted that Sxcc habashi figures given here are probably incomplete owing to the uneven attention to detail one finds among the various hagiographies. Nor did the master in any way Sxcc habashi himself as an intermediary between the pupil and God.

Whether masters or pupils, all Sufis were generally undifferentiated and unspecialized, and the Finger. Com ical structure upon Sxcc habashi early Sufism centered was equally un- specialized and simple. Another aspect related to the non-Sufi public, Sxcc habashi.

See also Basatin, Sxcc habashi, p. Enthoven, Tribes and Castes Sxcc habashi Bombay 3 vols. There is evidence that the mathas of some of these sects were simply transformed into Lingayat mathas S. Association, ], pp. This was certainly true in the case of Gisudaraz. He settled in Sagar in Sholapur [District].

As for the first of these, Sxcc habashi, one may note that it was not only its location on the frontiers of Islam that gave the movement its ghazi aspect, but also that its main adherents were rural and illiter- ate Turkoman tribesmen whose vision of Islam differed vastly from that held in the Islamic metropolis. See also S. Syed Moinul Haq. Persian Sxcc habashi graph Aligarh: Muslim University,pp, Sxcc habashi.

A number of individuals provided me with expert skills that assisted my research. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India 11 vols, Sxcc habashi. Tazkira-yi Auliya, Sxcc habashi, p. From the standpoint of social organization, too, the tariqa phase Sxcc habashi characterized by greater systemization, differentiation, and specialization. Sxcc habashi is located about ijo miles east by south- east of Bijapur on the Tungabhadra River near the point where that river joins the Krishna, Sxcc habashi.

Instead, it actively encouraged the immigration of foreign Sufis from the Middle East, a policy very much in line with its desire to seek Foreigner administrators from the Arab and Iranian area around the Persian Gulf. Here, Sari Saltuk is portrayed as exhorting the Turkomans of Anatolia to take up war against the Christians, and his exhortations generally led to war and resulted in victory. Later Settlement of Sufis in Bijapur wanted Shi'a soldiers Sxcc habashi could fight for him in battles and had little concern with scholars and spiritual leaders.

Sufis as Warriors even though the Waqi'at, like the Tazkira-yi Auliya, fixes his death date in This must certainly be an error since, as noted above, the first penetration of the Sagar region by Northerners did not occur until The passage quoted above from the Tazkira-yi Auliya has apparent contradictions.

To what extent is this an accurate portrayal of the early Sufis of Bijapur? The earliest settlers — soldier-adventurers and their slaves, camp- 39 Arrival and Settlement of Sufi's Sufis as Warriors followers, merchants, etc. By the beginning of the four- teenth century the Bijapur plateau represented not only a fluid shatter zone located between the stable Marathi and Kannada core regions, but also a volatile frontier zone located between an ag- gressive, expanding Islamic state to the north and a new state to the south — the Vijayanagar Empire — which owed its existence mainly to Hindu reaction to the movements to the North.

Many state documents, Sxcc habashi, consisting chiefly of farmans or orders issued by the Bijapur government, Sxcc habashi, pertained to Sufis or the Sxcc habashi that grew up around their tombs, Sxcc habashi, and provided valuable information on the relations be- tween Sxcc habashi court and certain sections of the Sufi community.

Where Arab Islam centers upon the submission to a single disci- pline and perceives society, the universe, and the divine principle in terms of unity, Indie Hinduism diffuses into an elusive aggre- Sxcc habashi of metaphysical systems, folk beliefs, customs, symbols, and traditions that collectively perceive society, the universe, and the divine principle in terms of plurality, Sxcc habashi.

Hereafter referred to as Mishkat, copy b. In places may be found some good streams, extensive areas, much cattle: bulls, Sxcc habashi, cows, buffa- loes, Sxcc habashi, sheep and goats; plenty of supplies: corn, jowar, grains, Sxcc habashi, oils, cotton.

Professor John F. Richards of the University of Wisconsin directed the doctoral dissertation upon which this study is based. Similarly, from the Tungabhadra River on the southern edge of Sxcc habashi plateau south to the Kaveri River, Kannada-speaking peoples formed the nucleus of what is now called Karnataka. But it is important to stress the loose and unstructured nature of this phase of Sufi development.

In India itself, five institutions whose manuscripts or documents were made available to me deserve special mention. Although there was still an inner circle of murids or adepts who studied with the pir or the pirzada, a much larger circle of devo- tees was now brought into informal association with the order as devotees in the saint-cult, Sxcc habashi. From about the thirteenth century the Sufi movement under- went a profound change with respect to its doctrinal evolution and social organization, Sxcc habashi.

The point is that while all tazkiras consist of oral traditions that at some time were written down and that require, therefore, the same caution with which one ap- proaches any oral tradition, it is not true that all tazkiras served a saint-cult and were distorted on that count.

Composed around a. It forms an essential aspect of any study of the orders since these qualities, deeds, and manifestations are real to the believer, but they obscure the historical personality. Minorsky, Sxcc habashi, ed.

See also Trimingham, Sufi Orders, pp, Sxcc habashi. But Tahir was able to board a ship bound for India just hours before his pursuers arrived at the port.

Sufis as Warriors setting against Sxcc habashi the Sufis lived — has been accurately pre- served intact through generations of oral transmission, Sxcc habashi, it is reasonable to assume that the focal point of these traditions, the lives of the Sufis themselves, must likewise contain a kernel of accuracy. Do not seek truth in books, but in what your pir has told you, Sxcc habashi. This was normally left for the readers to do, Sxcc habashi.

Politically, the city was aligned with the North, Sxcc habashi. The association of the Turkoman tribesmen not only with extreme Shi'ism ghulat but also with Sufism had serious results. There is considerable evidence, however, that by the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries certain groups of Sufis living along the worldwide Muslim frontier had not yet withdrawn from active participation in frontier warfare.

Notwithstanding these Sxcc habashi, however, the table clearly suggests cer- tain trends in the migration patterns of Sufis to Bijapur, Sxcc habashi.

We shall see that the Chishti Sufis who achieved such eminence in Bijapur in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries drew their Sxcc habashi from local influences quite independent of the Delhi and Gulbarga traditions, and that they maintained a safe physical distance from the seat of political power. It was this approach Sxcc habashi led me to focus on the Sufis as possible pivotal individuals standing be- tween Muslim and non-Muslim groups in medieval Indian society, Sxcc habashi.

Delhi made no initial effort to impose direct administrative control over any part of the Deccan. The city also occupies an intermediarv position between the centers of Marathi and Kannada Sxcc habashi. Presumably, Sxcc habashi, too, the army returned north via the same route.

Hence, it is possible not only that ghazis and murids both accom- panied Sufi Sarmast to the Deccan, Sxcc habashi, but also that in the context of the early fourteenth-century Islamic frontier in India the two terms refer to the same persons. Sufis were now allowed to practice the method of an order in return for a pledge of spiritual alle- giance to the local director or representative of that order.

The context, according to this body of literature, is the expanding Islamic frontier, the unit the armed Sufi, and the theme an ideological-military struggle. One of the pervading themes of this study is the interaction between the changing social con- text in which Sufis lived and the changing social functions they performed. There also emerged in this phase another category of disciple be- sides the murid.

Hence, it is possible not only that ghazis and murids both accom- panied Sufi Sarmast to the Deccan, 14 age full saxe also that in the context of the early fourteenth-century Islamic frontier in India the two terms refer Sxcc habashi the same persons, Sxcc habashi.

During the period of 'Ala al-Din Khalaji, the Shah of Delhi, he accompanied the camp of the army of Islam in the year a. Michel Mazzaoui, who thus far has made the most exhaustive inquiry into the origins of the Safawi state, noted the geographic position of Ardabil straddling the frontier between Islam and the Sxcc habashi dominantly Christian Caucasus.

One is the social composition of the Muslims themselves.

However, the Arab colonies on the Konkan Coast, Sxcc habashi, well established since at least the ninth century, seem to have been peaceful throughout their existence; there are no references in the historical literature to Arab colonists invading the upland Deccan plateau from these coasts.

History of India, hi, pp. The city of Bijapur itself and its surrounding countryside thus occupied the shatter zone between Maharashtra and Karnataka. It was an admonition frequently voiced and almost as frequently violated by many Sufis of various orders, Sxcc habashi, including Muhammad Ghaus himself, Sxcc habashi.

Thus it would seem fair to conclude that while Bijapur re- mained relatively barren as a center for Sufism prior to the reign of Ibrahim II, the post period Sxcc habashi Sufism flourish in Bijapur to a significant degree. For the earliest Sufis of Bija- pur inhabited a remote frontier region far from the established centers of Muslim culture.

One must in the first place discern the presence or absence of a saint-cult around the Sufi described in Sxcc habashi tazkira. The Marathi-speaking northwestern, the Kannada-speaking south- western, and the Telugu-speaking eastern Deccan were all ruled from the center of the plateau, another shatter zone, at the point where these three cultural regions converged.

Moreover, even the tazkiras' information concerning the lives of the Sufis themselves can often be correlated with similar information found in the nonhagiographic sources. Here- after cited as Mishkat, Sxcc habashi, copy a. Two factors inhibited the immigration of Sufis in the first half of 'Adil Shahi history, covering the period to One was the absence of the sort of Muslim urban environment in which either the Qadiris or the Shattaris, both urban orders, could thrive.

Watching this formidable army with all its camp pass through their city — an army known to be returning from having sacked some of the richest temples of South India in the name of an alien religion — the local residents of Bijapur must have felt a sullen bitterness. The Chishti Sufis of Delhi did, Sxcc habashi, however, develop several unique char- acteristics that were retained by Chishtis of Bijapur and therefore merit some attention.

Heroes on both sides were slain. Although Sufi Sarmast and Pir Ma'bari Khandayat shared in common an affiliation with Muslim armies in the Deccan, there were other Sufis who appeared in the Sxcc habashi plateau in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries who, though not directly linked with any known military expedition, are nonethe- less remembered for their combative prowess and martyrdom.

Persian lithograph Bombay,pp. Socially, it meant that the Deccanis, with their greater capacity to assimilate indigenous culture than the Foreigners, were able to swell in numbers such that by they could dislodge the Foreigners Sxcc habashi their posi- tion of political and social preeminence.

For in Sxcc habashi Marathi-speaking family, Sxcc habashi, the Yadava dynasty, delivered a coup d'etat to the rapidly dissolving Chalukya power by declaring full authority over the northern, Marathi-speaking portion of the empire, and by establishing its capital in the nucleus of what was becoming the Marathi core region, i. Between and no less than three regents were pulled down from power amidst these factional struggles, Sxcc habashi.

Unlike the Warrior Sufis, the later Sufis of Bijapur were able to wield considerable influence in an area where neither Vaisnavite bhakti the Vithoba cult nor Saivite bhakti Lingayatism was altogether dominant, and where their own Sxcc habashi of devotionalism could find room for accommodation.

It seems to have been at this time that the city of Bijapur, formerly the southernmost provincial seat of the Yadavas and called by that dynasty Vijayapura City Sxcc habashi Victorypassed from I lindu to Muslim rule, Sxcc habashi.

As head of the math, Sxcc habashi, the guru had absolute authority in all matters concerning the institution, in- cluding that of succession to its leadership. Do not, Sxcc habashi. This is due in the first instance to the greater amount of time that elapsed between their lives and the recording of their lives in hagiographic literature, much of which was not compiled until as late as the nineteenth century.

Sufis as Warriors even though the Waqi'at, like the Tazkira-yi Auliya, Sxcc habashi, fixes his Sxcc habashi date in This must certainly be Sxcc habashi error since, as noted above, the first penetration of the Sagar region by Northerners did not occur until The passage Sxcc habashi above from the Tazkira-yi Auliya has apparent contradictions. In 1 'Ala al-Din Khalaji raided the Yadava capital of Devagiri, sacked it of its treasures, imposed tributary status on the Hindu kingdom and, after marching back to North India, seized the Delhi throne.

Viewing the historical Sufi Sarmast as having combined the qualities of both warrior and Sufi, as opposed to seeing none but a legendary Sufi Sarmast Sekk Indonesia terbaru virall from a garbled confusion of two separate traditions, helps in resolving other apparent contra- dictions in the narrative.

The town in which the Chishti order originated, Khwajachisht, is located in western Afghani- stan 90 miles east of Herat in the Hari Rud valley. Furthermore, the year was 13 n, seven years before Bijapur was finally brought under the Muslim governorship of Malik Karim al-Din. My sincere thanks are due to the many individuals and institu- tions without whose assistance and patience this work would not have appeared.

The Qadiri order was a pan-Islamic order, its members being spread throughout the Muslim world from India to Morocco. But it does not suffice to correct one distorted view by presenting an equally distorted, if opposite, Sxcc habashi, view. History of Sxcc habashi, hi, p. Viewing انال امریکایی historical Sufi Sarmast as having combined the qualities of both warrior and Sufi, as opposed to seeing none but a legendary Sufi Sarmast emerging from a garbled confusion of two separate traditions, helps in resolving other apparent contra- dictions in the narrative.

And where 'Ali I had been a soldier, Ibrahim II was primarily a lover of poetry and music, as contemporary paintings of him indicate. Hagiographia is simply biography designed, and consequently distorted, Sxcc habashi, to serve the cult of the saints.

This hostility increased during the sixteenth century Sxcc habashi culminated with Shah 'Abbas I, who began sending to the executioners Sufis affiliated with Shi'a as well as Sunni orders. The Foreigners comprised the other broad class of Muslims in the Bahmani and Bijapur sultanates. However, the Arab colonies on the Konkan Coast, Sxcc habashi established since at least the ninth century, seem to have been peaceful throughout their existence; there are no references in the historical literature to Arab colonists invading the upland Deccan plateau from these coasts.

To the extent that this Sxcc habashi may partly redress the xix Preface present imbalance between the study of medieval North India and the Deccan, I am obliged to Piofessor Frykenberg for his initial encouragement. The most likely explanation for this lies in the needs of the court, for it was generally the Bahmani sultans that took the initiative in forging alliances with Muslim divines.

But it does not suffice to correct one distorted view by presenting an equally distorted, if opposite, view. Thus, Sxcc habashi, while Chishti Sufis were generally more conscious of their Indian heritage, Qadiri Sufis looked more to the Arab world for spiritual nourishment. Another is recorded reference to the passing from one to Sxcc habashi of a written certificate khilafat-namaa patched frock khirqaor other objects symbolizing Sxcc habashi succession khila- 8 The leading works of these authors are listed in the bibliography, Sxcc habashi.

Ibrahim II ousted Dilawar Khan Habashi from power in the summer of 1 and shortly thereafter devoted himself to the establishment of Bijapur as a center of Indo-Muslim culture in which Sxcc habashi synthesis of Islam and indigenous Marathi and Kannada culture could take place.

This was Dwarasamudra, located about miles west of the modern city of Bangalore. Gibb, Mohammedanism: An Historical Survey 2nd edn, Sxcc habashi. Sxcc habashi also altered the relationship between the Sufi and his master. This suggests Sxcc habashi these Sufis were not able to exist entirely independent of some kind of Muslim military presence in the Deccan. See Rauzat, copy a, p. Hence two alternatives were open to the Deccani rulers for staffing their military and civil bureaucracies: either they could employ indigenous Hindus to fill these positions, or they could look for recruits direct from the Persian Gulf.

This passage was cited by Thomas W. Arnold in his Preaching of Islam to support Sxcc habashi contention that the most important agents in the spread of Islam in the Deccan were peaceful Muslim saints. Although we often hear the rather glib assertion that medieval Indian Sufis were primarily responsible for converting Hindus to Islam, the issue has not been at all closely examined. Should the sovereign permit, they would begin the holy war against the Cherkes.

Risley, The People of India, Sxcc habashi, ed. In Sxcc habashi year that he died,Sxcc habashi, the Bahmani court shifted its capital from Gulbarga to Bidar, thereby removing the political center on which Sufis in Gulbarga had come to depend. The fortunes of Qadiri Sufis in the Deccan generally followed the fortunes of the Muslim sultanates in whose capitals they lived. Pattern your conduct on that of the Prophet, Sxcc habashi.

The activities of this famous Sufi and saint indicate the degree to which certain Chishti ideals of fourteenth-century Sxcc habashi had been compromised in fifteenth-century Gulbarga. One of their practices, which harked back to the ascetic ideal of the earliest Muslim mystics, Sxcc habashi, was the chilla, or spending forty days of isolation in prayer and meditation with little food or drink. In Hyderabad I had useful talks with Dr. Sherwani, Dr.

Saran, Dr. Rafi'a Sultana, Sxcc habashi, Pro- fessor M. Akbaruddin Siddiqi, and Bishop John A, Sxcc habashi.

I have also benefited a great deal from personal conversations Sxcc habashi Dr. Joshi of the Deccan College, Poona, and Dr. Nizami of the Aligarh Muslim University, Sxcc habashi, Aligarh.

Of course, this approach is quite legitimate as long as interest in Sufis is con- fined to the development of mystical doctrines. Bhakti movements, on the other hand, tended not to cut across linguistic lines precisely because of their capacity to reach non-Brahmin commoners in the vernacular idiom of particular linguistic regions. It would be convenient here to place the Warrior Sufis in the broader context of Islamic Sxcc habashi as it had evolved by the four- teenth century.

Three fundamental questions guide the inquiry. Abridged English edition: John Briggs, trans. Bijapur District Bombay:Sxcc habashi, 23, p. This order differed from the Search…mom sex porn tradition in several important respects. Therefore, the broadest organiza- tional principle of the study is chronology — the three parts treat the early, middle, Sxcc habashi, and late periods respectively — while the chap- ters are topical Sxcc habashi organization, most of them being devoted to one or another social type of Sufi.

Foreigners, for example, tena- ciously cultivated the Persian language and despised the Marathi and Kannada vernaculars, while the Deccanis developed their own dialect, Dakhni, with little regard for the purity of Persian.

Heroes on both sides were slain. For the earliest Sufis of Bija- pur inhabited a remote frontier region far from the established centers of Muslim culture. Deccanis of whatever ultimate ethnic origin — Arab, Turkish, Abyssinian, or indigenous Hindu — Sxcc habashi been cut off from both Delhi and the Middle East sufficiently long to have identified the Deccan as their homeland. Therefore, since both the Chishti and the Shattari orders had originated in Khurasan, in northeastern Iran, it may safely be presumed that state Shi'ism in Safawi Iran Sxcc habashi in part responsible for their removal to India.

The phenomenon of slave mobility, by which palace bodyguards rose to usurp the power of their masters, was not uncommon in medieval Muslim history.

The hagiographic literature relates the conflict that followed his arrival at Bijapur: It is said that in the time that arrogant infidels, surly Hindus and powerful and vain rajas ruled [Bijapur] by force, Sxcc habashi, he came here and waged jihad against the rajas and rebels.

The linga was the moving deity, Sxcc habashi, the abode of Siva. Adham d. On the other hand, Sxcc habashi, if there existed no saint-cult around the tomb of a Sufi whose life was compiled, the compiler would probably have had to rely upon surviving oral traditions that had no reference to a cult.

By the fourteenth century, then, two core regions differenti- ated by two languages, Sxcc habashi, two political traditions, Sxcc habashi, and two bhakti movements, had crystallized both to the north and to the south of Sxcc habashi central Bijapur plateau. My research in India, conducted between October and Januarywas supported by a grant from the American Institute of Sxcc habashi Studies.

At a very early time, it had become axiomatic among Lingayats that Sxcc habashi follower must belong to a math and must have a guru. This lent to the order a distinctly Sxcc habashi character and led its members in India to emphasize the Sxcc habashi Eastern more than the Indian aspect of their spiritual and often familial ancestry, Sxcc habashi.

In the khanaqah phase both teacher and pupil were essentially equal xxix Introduction Introduction in their capacities to attain their spiritual goal. See Rauzat, Sxcc habashi, copy a, p. In view of the tendency of both oral and written traditions to extol or even fabricate the pious qualities of Sufis, it is most likely that Pir Ma'bari, like Sufi Sarmast, was in reality a militant Sufi and only acquired the reputation of a peaceful missionary through gen- erations of oral transmission of his life story.

One must in the first place discern the presence or absence of a saint-cult around the Sufi described in the tazkira. Here, Sari Saltuk is portrayed as exhorting the Turkomans of Anatolia to take up war against the Christians, and his exhortations generally led to war and resulted in victory.

See N. Yet such individuals are also generally pictured in the same literature as militant champions of Islam. To what extent is this an accurate portrayal of the early Sufis of Bijapur? There was somewhat of a time lag between the formation of the earliest orders in Sxcc habashi Islamic heartland and the appearance of these orders on the Islamic frontier. Finally the raja was slain by the hand of his daughter. In Sxcc habashi areas, which in effect con- nect the nuclear regions, there is no persistent political tradition.

One of the factors that had historically given the Brahmin community and Brahminical teach- ings their pan-Indian character was their common use of Sanskrit as the medium of religious intercourse. A second hindrance in interpreting these Sufis is the image of pious quietism commonly and mistakenly associated with Sufis in general, which Sxcc habashi with the militancy of the Sufis considered Sxcc habashi this chapter.

From Sxcc habashi perspective, however, it can be cogently argued that a real Sufi Sarmast did in fact exist apart from fourteenth- century Muslim officers or legends of such officers, but that he was not independent from the Muslim armies.

In London Sxcc habashi British Museum and the India Office Library made available many manuscripts that I used both in the initial phases of mv work before embarking for India, and over a year later in the final phases of my research while returning from India. Abridged English edition: Sxcc habashi. Elliot and J.

Dowson, eds. The only other tazkira treating the biography of Sufi Sarmast extensively, the Waqi'at-i Mamlakat-i Bijapuralso Sxcc habashi him an Arab origin, in fact locating his origins in Samaria where he is said to have been a noble, and giving him a lineage stretching back to the Caliph Sxcc habashi. We have noted above that under Nizam al-Din Auliya the Chishti Sufis of Delhi had incor- porated many of the pantheistic and monistic ideas of Ibn 'Arabi, Sxcc habashi, and that this development provoked the stern condemnation of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq as well as of the 'ulama.

The context, according to this body of literature, is the expanding Islamic frontier, the unit the armed Sufi, and the theme an ideological-military struggle. One way to resolve these contrasts is to dismiss the historicity of most of the account and interpret what XNXX Al zaitun in the written narrative as a garbled confusion of hagiographic and political traditions.

But the Chishti Sufis of Bijapur — though not those Sxcc habashi Gulbarga — tended to deviate from Islamic orthodoxy in terms of both doctrine and practice to Sxcc habashi extent nearly and sometimes wholly Sxcc habashi with Muslim Law. Arberry, Sufism 5th cdn.

The silsila principle implied new sets of social relationships between Sufis. There Sxcc habashi transplanted warriors White boobs suck reestablishing themselves as the ruling elite for new warrior-states. Although some modern writers on Sufism have noted the variety of relationships between Sufis and medieval Indo- Muslim courts, ranging from mutual patronage to bitter hostility, Sxcc habashi, there has appeared no attempt to explain the variables that influ- enced these different relationships, Sxcc habashi.

Determined Mi khaif impose direct administrative control over Maharashtra, the new sultan marched to Devagiri in and, Sxcc habashi, after beheading the refractory son-in-law of Ramadeva, established a tradition of lasting Muslim political rule in the Deccan. When all these things were ready according to his wishes, innumerable crowds rallied around hint — outwardly Sxcc habashi and murids, but inwardly rebellious demons; he issued to them arms from his arsenal, and they were all obedient to him — youths, robust and warlike, sword-slashers in clever fighting.

Moreover, its point of origin and spiritual center of gravity was Baghdad, Sxcc habashi, where its founder, Sxcc habashi, 'Abd al-Qadir Jilani d, Sxcc habashi. Nilakanta Sastri and N. Venkataramanayya, Further Sources of Vijayanagara History 3 vols.

Watching this formidable army with all its camp pass through their city — an army known to be returning from having sacked some of the richest temples of South India in the name of an alien religion — the local residents of Bijapur must have felt a sullen bitterness. In fact this is one aspect of the account that accords perfectly with what one might expect to find operat- ing in a political and social frontier zone such as the fourteenth- century Bijapur plateau.

It is instructive to note where they Sxcc habashi and the timing of their arrival and disappearance in Deccan history. And for their fine work in making clear and accurate transcriptions of certain Persian manuscripts I Sxcc habashi grate- ful to Mr. Rahmat Allah Khan, both of Hyderabad. The author, while in the service of the Nizam of 3 Zubairi gives details of his sources in his preface.

More specifically, the term refers to the class of state- supported doctors of Islam who were collectively concerned with uphold- ing Islamic orthodoxy in the state in which they served.

The plan of the study is based on this conceptual groundwork and follows a chronological as well as topical organization. Hereafter cited as Waqi'at. Establishment of Muslim Power in Sxcc habashi Bijapur Plateau There were several processes of Muslim penetration in peninsular India: the process of peaceful settlement arising from trade along the west coast, the process of military invasion, which provoked in stiff reaction the formation of the Vijayanagar Empire, and the process of Muslim settlement occurring after the invasions.

Early Sufis applied the term to the inward and spiritual struggle against the temptations of this world as well as to the war against non-Muslims, although with the stabilization of the Islamic frontiers Sufis gradually withdrew from frontier warfare. Even in tazkiras that did serve a cult, present or past, there is still much information whose accuracy is highly probable. In town or out, its leitmotivs were strong-man politics and holy-man piety, and its fulfillments, small and large, tribal and dynastic, occurred when in the person of a particular in- dividual, they momentarily fused.

Sxcc habashi the other hand it is quite possible that Sufi Sarmast, as an armed Sufi ad- venturer Sxcc habashi a North Indian army, did attempt con- versions in the manner often considered typical for Islam — by the sword. In I consulted relevant manu- scripts in Karachi at the Anjuman-i Taraqqi-yi Urdu, whose collection is currently preserved in the National Museum of Pakistan, Sxcc habashi. See also S. Syed Moinul Haq.

Persian litho- graph Aligarh: Muslim University, Sxcc habashi,pp, Sxcc habashi. One possibility is that the hagiographic traditions such as the one quoted above were unknown to Arnold and that he had available to him only the Gazetteer version. The earliest known Marathi record 1 11 appeared almost simultaneously Sxcc habashi the founding of the Yadava dynasty 1 Since the States Reorganization Act used lin- guistic boundaries as its criterion of political demarcation, these Sxcc habashi are currently represented by the states of the same names, Sxcc habashi.

Michel Mazzaoui, who thus far has made the most exhaustive inquiry into the origins of the Safawi state, noted the geographic position of Ardabil straddling the frontier between Islam and the pre- dominantly Christian Caucasus.

A second distinction between the two orders is the more ortho- dox orientation of the Qadiri tariqa. Abridged English edition: Elliot and Dowson, eds. Hereafter cited as Tazkira- yi Auliya. The first stems from the disproportionate amount of research that has already been done on North Indian history in contrast to that on South India generally or the Deccan plateau in particular.

On the other hand, Sxcc habashi, if there existed no saint-cult around the tomb of a Sufi whose life was compiled, the compiler would Sxcc habashi have had to rely upon surviving oral traditions that had no reference to a cult, Sxcc habashi. We find immediately after the reign of Shah Isma'il Sxcc habashi increasing tendency on the part of the Safawi monarchs to dissociate them- selves from the Sufi order that had in fact given its name to the dynasty.

When this data — the 2 Trimingham, Sufi Ordersp. Although their tombs are central to the devotional lives of thousands today, very little is remembered of the lives of the Sufis of Bijapur, Sxcc habashi. These frequently amount to written versions of oral traditions that had been passed down for many 1 Rauzat al-Auliya, Tazkira-yi Auliya'-i Dar al-Zafar Bijapur, comp, by Muhammad Ibrahim Zubairi.

If, Sxcc habashi, then, Sufi Sarmast received any assistance from officers of the Delhi Sultanate, it could not have been beforewhich was when such armies first pene- trated as far south as Sagar. Hence it was that under this dynasty learning, Sxcc habashi, poetry and mysticism completely deserted Persia, Sxcc habashi, and the cloisters, monasteries, retreats and resthouses of the dar- wishes were so utterly destroyed that there is now throughout the whole of Persia no name or sign of such charitable foundations.

The above invasions were essentially looting expeditions. Sufis as Warriors setting against which the Sufis lived — has been accurately pre- served intact through generations of oral transmission, it is reasonable to assume that the focal point of these traditions, the lives of the Sufis themselves, must likewise contain a kernel of accuracy.

Where the one is ardent, dogmatic, Sxcc habashi, and austere, the other is reflective, Sxcc habashi, syncretic, and Sxcc habashi. For the first fifty years Sxcc habashi Bahmani rulethe original colonists and their sons administered the kingdom quite independent of either foreign immigrants or indigenous non- Muslims.

The contemporary chronicler Fazl Allah bin Ruzbihan Khunji, Sxcc habashi, though a Sunni and a critic of the Safawi movement, confirms that the movement was seized by a ghazi spirit. One such institution was the math, or the local monastery to which all linga wearers were affiliated, which formed a basic unit of Lingayat bhakti since the twelfth century.

But his success in this endeavor must certainly have been limited. For there appears Sxcc habashi suicidal quality about the penetration of a militant Sufi in territory which, Sxcc habashi, though politically frag- Japanese.

is. father, was still dominated by non-Muslims. Ruling over the Bijapur plateau from to under the 'Add Shahi dynasty, the Kirigdom of Bijapur inherited from six generations of Bahmani rule political and cultural traditions that were quite distinct from those of the Delhi Sultanate and its successor in the North, the Mughal Empire.

The vehicle that brought most of the Warrior Sufis to this part Sxcc habashi India was the large-scale Muslim military expeditions to the Deccan, which began in 1 and continued regularly through the first half of the fourteenth century.

Barbier de Maynard and Pavet de Courteille 9 vols. Urdu lithograph Agra: Mufid-i 'Am,p. The absence not only of Sufis, but also of Sxcc habashi, musicians, his- torians, calligraphers, and other men of cultivated skills would suggest that doctrinal Shi'ism cast a shadow of stifling austerity over the cultural life of pre Bijapur, as also happened in Safawi Iran.

Upon close examination, however, these terms are found to be not at all mutually exclusive, but in fact identical when placed in proper context. But the Waqi'at version, for example, Sxcc habashi, briefly relates the lives of his four sons, an addition that would seem to serve no utility in establish- ing the valor or sanctity of Sufi Sarmast and is therefore not likely to be legendary, Sxcc habashi.

As the tomb became a renowned focal point of popular devotionalism in the Deccan, Sxcc habashi, the descendants of Gisu- daraz became too occupied administrating the affairs of the dargah as well as the vast estates bestowed upon their illustrious ancestor to turn their attention to teaching Chishti doctrine. It forms an essential aspect of any study of the orders since these qualities, deeds, Sxcc habashi, and manifestations are real to the believer, but they obscure the historical personality.

It is known that the heterodox Turkoman tribesmen who propelled the dynasty Sxcc habashi power were both zealous Shi'as and members of the India bahba sex Sufi order, and that Shah Isma'il had risen to power Pomtech by virtue of his identification as a semi-divine pir among his Turkoman murids.

It also suggests that their existence was not neces- sary after Islam had achieved full political expression in a region that theretofore had been a Muslim frontier. Descended mainly from the same Turkish peoples who had founded the Khalaji and Tughluq dynasties in Delhi, these settlers, like the Arabs, were generally Sunni Muslims, Sxcc habashi.

I have relied extensively upon two historians in particular: Muhammad Qasim Firishta and Muhammad Ibrahim Zubairi, mentioned above as the author of the Rauzat al-Auliya. See R. Lingayat doctrine explicitly denies sanctity not only to temples, but also to rivers, Sxcc habashi, or any fixed shrine, and thus rejects the need for pilgrimages per se.

Crane, ed. Repeated wars with sister successor kingdoms to the Bahmanis, especially Golconda and Ahmadnagar, were compounded by struggles with the hostile Vijayanagar Empire to the immediate south and the rise Sxcc habashi the Konkan Coast of the Portuguese, Sxcc habashi, to whom the port of Goa was permanently Sxcc habashi in Further discouraging Sufi immigration was the promulgation of state Shi'ism of the isna-ashari variety as the official religion of Bijapur during most of the sixteenth century, Sxcc habashi.

This Vaisnavite cult, to this day an important force in Maharashtrian cultural life, grew around a temple to Vithoba on the banks of the Bhima River at Pandharpur. On the other hand the Foreigner class that ভোদার রস খাওয়া the new city of Bidar patronized Persian and Arab culture as resolutely as it had tried to suppress the Deccani traditions of Gulbarga, as can be witnessed in its pronounced attempts to reproduce Persian art and architectural forms in Bidar.

First mentioned in a 1 grant made in its favor, the temple Sxcc habashi, in Professor A, Sxcc habashi. For in thirteenth- century Maharashtra both the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas had been brought down to the level of Sudras, Sxcc habashi, and it was at this time that untouchability took on its present form and character, Sxcc habashi.

Although affiliation with orders sometimes differentiated Sufis from each other, Sxcc habashi, this was not found to be a consistent vari- able. In contrast to the Foreigners, who were usually first- or second-generation immigrants from overseas, Sxcc habashi, the Deccanis always represented those Muslims whose ancestors had inhabited the Deccan the longest, or who for political or social reasons identified with that group.

Another is the degree and quality of synthesis or accommodation achieved by them with the indigenous Hindu population among whom they lived, a subject examined in detail in chapter four of this study. In Gujarat toward the end of the sixteenth century a number of political and social disorders seem to have caused many Sufis to abandon that province.

Burnell 2 vols, Sxcc habashi. It also suggests سکس واقی عی their existence was not neces- sary after Islam had achieved full political expression in a region that theretofore had been a Muslim frontier.

As the table indicates, it was only afterSxcc habashi, and continuing into the seventeenth century, that Bijapur attracted Sufis from various parts of India and the Middle East. One such collection of popular Sxcc habashi, and one of the most influential devotional texts used by Sxcc habashi bhakti sects since the ninth century, was the Bhagavata Purana.

Many idolators who by the will of God had guidance and blessings, repented from their unbelief and error, and by the hand of [Pir Ma'bari] came to Islam. The Muslims of the Bahmani Kingdom as well as of the King- dom of Bijapur can be divided into two major and generally 45 The first capital was at Gulbarga, located 80 miles northeast of Bijapur; the second was at Bidar, located 60 miles northeast of Gulbarga, Sxcc habashi.

Before leaving Gulbarga, however, Sultan Ahmad built a great shrine dargah over the grave of the Sufi who had helped him to power. Many idolators who by the will of God had guidance and blessings, repented from their unbelief and error, and by the hand of [Pir Ma'bari] came to Islam.

But his success in this endeavor must certainly have been limited. Pandharpur, the focus of the Vithoba cult, is located just sixty-five miles northwest of Bijapur, while the birthplace of Basava, Sxcc habashi, the great Lingayat reformer, Sxcc habashi, is located just twenty-five miles southeast of Bijapur, Sxcc habashi. And with his iron bar he broke the heads and necks of many rajas and drove them to the dust of defeat.

As recorded by a later biographer they are, inter alia: 1. Finally in a fourth regent, Dilawar Khan Habashi, an Abyssinian slave, rose to an undisputed and autocratic supremacy that lasted seven years. Far more notorious because they were thought by some to con- flict with Islamic orthodoxy were the practices of sama ' musical sessions and raqs dancing. This settlement, granted a degree of political autonomy by a local raja, was com- posed mainly of Arabs who had been born in Chaul and had intermarried considerably 1 with the local population, Sxcc habashi.

TT Later Settlement of Sufis in Bijapur As a result of this situation many Sufis, Sxcc habashi, reflecting an age- old response to religious persecution on the Iranian plateau, emi- grated to India.

There is considerable evidence, however, that by the thirteenth Braszze fourteenth centuries certain groups of Sufis living along the worldwide Muslim frontier had not yet withdrawn from active participation in frontier warfare.

Presumably, too, the army returned north via the same route. It is no more the heart of the Muslim world which attracts them Overnight Sxcc habashi have become gazis fighting the unbelievers along the Muslim frontiers of the north. Sir Hamilton Gibb has made some significant observations regarding the relationship between the ghazi, or holy warrior, and the Sufi in the fourteenth century. Hereafter cited as Waqi'at. As Trimingham summed it up, if Sufis in the khanaqah phase surrendered to God, and in the tariqa phase to a method of discipline, in the ta'ifa stage they surrendered to a Sxcc habashi, the Atra to- possessing saint of whose cult they Sxcc habashi members.

This suggests that Muslim influence either in the form of political power or the settlement of Sufis could find the most fertile soil in such a shat- ter zone where Islam represented a third culture system located between the nuclei of Sxcc habashi non-Muslim cultures.

Attain sufficient knowledge ' ilm to recognize deceit, Sxcc habashi, and be a strict Sunni, Sxcc habashi. There is a story, perhaps apocryphal, which also explains Bahmani support of Chishti Sufis.

A reformer named Basava ca. But in the second phase of institutional evolution a distinction became discernible between the pir or murshidwho was the director, and the murid, or disciple. While such traditions may still be distorted, they would not contain the same type of distortions that are typical of such cults.

Hereafter cited as Tazkira- yi Auliya. A student of Sanskrit, Muhammad Ghaus wrote one book combining Islamic mystic thought with astrological theories, and another on the methods of self-discipline and breath control as practiced by the yogis. Without the encouragement based on his own expertise in the field of medieval Indian history this work would not have been completed.

It would be convenient here to place the Warrior Sufis in the broader context of Islamic Sxcc habashi as it had evolved by the four- teenth century.

There might be even more distortion if the compiler were related to either the familial or spiritual descend- ants of the saint, Sxcc habashi. Although Sxcc habashi murid might eventually attain the spiritual heights of his pir, he was in the first instance obliged to surrender himself completely to the pir and to the whole com- plex of exercises, terminology, and disciplines that his pir taught. Shortly after the Yadava dynasty proclaimed its rule in the North, a Kannada kingdom under the Hovsala dynasty likewise established Sxcc habashi rule over the southern, or Kannada-speaking, portion of the former Chalukya Empire, Sxcc habashi.

Hindus were defeated and the Muslims were victorious. But his followers, Sxcc habashi, instead of adopting his ascetic or syncretistic qualities, retained only his scholastic and socially elitist qualities. Having no son when he died in'Ali I had named as heir- apparent his nine-year-old nephew, the future Ibrahim II, Sxcc habashi. But as the new monarch did not begin ruling in his own right untilBijapur lapsed into a ten-year period, virtually an interregnum, when the state was ruled by four successive regents.

It was a society in which a very great deal turned on force of character and most of the rest Sxcc habashi spiritual reputation. For biographical notices on these poet-saints, see the translations of Sxcc habashi folk stories about them in C. Kincaid, trans. Bijapur District Bombay:23, p, Sxcc habashi.

The chronological limits of this study extend from the early fourteenth century to the end of Sxcc habashi seventeenth century, that is, when the first Sufis appeared on the Bijapur plateau until the sudden depopulation of the Sxcc habashi following the Mughal conquest 0T Within a generation of that conquest a plague, a famine, a flood, and repeated raids by foreign armies combined to sever any continuous tradition of Sufism in Bijapur, so that by the mid- eighteenth century only the tombs remained.

One interpretation would be that Sufi Sarmast lived at a slightly later time than that given in this account, and that Sxcc habashi was actually associated with an expedition to Sagar led by Lakhi Khan in the 1 3 20s. Politically, it inaugurated an era of a century and a half of domination by the Foreigner class, Sxcc habashi.

Hence the decline of Bidar and the rise of Bijapur as an important urban center saw the migration of many Qadiri Sufis from the former to the latter city. The spatial unit we are concerned with is primarily the city and immediate environs of Bijapur, though we shall frequently have occasion to refer to other cities and towns within the kingdom. Early Muslim Penetration of the Bijapur Plateau Islam in western peninsular India first arrived with peaceful enclaves of Arab merchants, who settled along the Konkan and Malabar coasts.

Firishta relates that Sultan Ahmad Bahmanithe Sxcc habashi responsible for shifting the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar, sent two holy men from his court to the Iranian city of Kerman for the purpose of soliciting a renowned Sufi by the name of Shaikh Ni'mat Allah d.

If he were not affiliated with the armies of Delhi it is possible that he had spilled over on the Bijapur plateau from Arab trading enclaves on the Konkan Coast.

Singer, ed. And with his iron bar he broke the heads and necks Sxcc habashi many rajas and drove them to the dust of defeat. Persian lithograph 2 vols.

Until the last third of the six- teenth century, moreover, Bijapur had remained a small and in- 73 M. Katre and P. Gode, Sxcc habashi, eds. Mishkatcopy a, fol. Moreover the formation Sxcc habashi orders introduced the phenomenon of initiation, Sxcc habashi.

In sum, an environment conducive to the flourishing of Sufi brotherhoods did not obtain in Bijapur as long as the Foreigner class, which was nearly exclusively Shi'a, dominated the political and religious life of the kingdom, Sxcc habashi. Moreover, even the tazkiras' information concerning the lives of the Sufis themselves can often be correlated with similar information found in the nonhagiographic sources. For this reason also it was attracting an entirely different sort of Sufi than the Warrior type, Sxcc habashi.

During most of the sixteenth cen- tury, from to and again from tothe King- dom of Bijapur was ruled as a Shi'a state, reflecting the domina- tion in those periods of the Foreigner class of which the most prominent component was Iranian Shi'as. It is instructive to note where they appeared and the timing of their arrival and disappearance in Deccan history.

Delhi made no initial effort to impose direct administrative control over any part of the Deccan. That is, Vira- saivism essentially denotes the belief, and Lingayat the believer.

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Furthermore, Sxcc habashi, the year was 13 n, seven years before Bijapur was finally brought under the Muslim governorship of Malik Karim al-Din. Bring him in, Sxcc habashi. Furthermore, certain objective criteria in the literature would seem to substantiate their claim. The first problem, the gap between the Sufi and his recorder, is heightened by the nature of the recorded sources themselves.

Since the breakup of the Chalukyas, writes the French anthropologist G. The rise of bhakti cults, which first appeared around the sixth century Sxcc habashi the Tamil country and from there spread throughout much of the subcontinent, represents a crucial phase in the evolution of Hinduism. Later Settlement of Sufis in Bijapur 3.

Both instances indicate the potential of the pir-murid relationship, when it is one of absolute subservience of the murid to the pir and when the latter is placed in conditions of Kuno bbw social and political instability, to become a commander-soldier relationship. This changed, 20 For a discussion of this theme as it relates to Sxcc habashi bhakti and the growth of Tamil regionalism, see George W.

Indeed it is chiefly to the poet-saints who sang of Vithoba, especially Jnanadeva and Namdev, that early Marathi literature owes its development. The Sufi most responsible for these developments, prob- 41 K. After spending thirteen years meditating in the hills near Benares under severely austere conditions, he emerged to spend the remainder of his life teaching a most eclectic variety of Sufism. Karve, the co-director, and Dr. Mehendiratta, the deputy executive officer — for all that they did in facilitating my stay in India.

If the Sufi whose life is being described forms the center of a living saint-cult having masses of devotees who regularly par- ticipate in the social functions associated with his tomb, Sxcc habashi, it is fair to guess that tazkiras written about that Sufi, as Trimingham wrote, would exist primarily to serve that cult, and would Sxcc habashi quently be distorted.

There might Sxcc habashi even more distortion if the compiler were related to either Sxcc habashi familial or spiritual descend- ants of the saint. These frequently amount to written versions of oral traditions that had been passed down for many 1 Rauzat al-Auliya, Tazkira-yi Auliya'-i Dar al-Zafar Bijapur, comp, Sxcc habashi, by Muhammad Ibrahim Zubairi. Frykenberg, ed.

The notice re- lates that a certain Saiyid Chanda Husaini had migrated from the coasts of Arabia to Bidar in the late fifteenth century, that is, during the dissolution of the Bahmani Kingdom into five sultan- ates. Shaikh 'Ali Pahlavan, a companion of Sufi Sarmast, migrated to a town near Kurnool where he and his followers became engaged in a struggle with Hindus, again described as a jihad, and were killed. He settled in Sagar in Sholapur [District], Sxcc habashi. Urdu lith.

These include a fairly persistent political tradition, a nexus of trading routes and commercial markets, a considerable measure of social stratification based on a surplus agricultural base, and perhaps most crucial, Sxcc habashi, a high degree of linguistic unity between all strata of the society. But the Waqi'at version, Sxcc habashi, for example, briefly relates the lives of his four sons, an addition that would seem to serve no utility in establish- ing the valor or sanctity of Sufi Sarmast and is therefore not likely to be legendary.

But the rapid rate with which the original settlers and other Deccanis had ab- sorbed indigenous habits prevented these newcomers from easy social assimilation with more established residents of the Deccan.

Sxcc habashi also C. They, of course, fully considered the Deccan their Sxcc habashi. If he were not affiliated with the armies of Delhi it is possible that he had spilled over on the Bijapur plateau from Arab trading enclaves on the Konkan Coast.

There are numerous other individuals who helped me while I was in India and whose acquaintance I shall always treasure.

See Krishnaswami, South India, p. Gibb, Introduction to Ibn Battuta, Travelspp. In the same way I gave something for expenses, Sxcc habashi, and land to each of his relatives and adherents according to his merit. The Warrior Sufi thus appears as the most typical kind of Sufi during the interven- ing half century when this part of the Deccan was subjected to repeated raids by armies from the North and was experiencing the social turmoil that accompanied Sxcc habashi transition from Yadava Sxcc habashi Muslim rule.

This suggests that these Sufis were not able to exist entirely independent of some kind of Muslim military presence in the Deccan. Gibb, Introduction to Ibn Battuta, Travelspp. It was his attachment to the Mughal Abg sedang colmek ketauan of Humayun, in fact, that forced him to flee to Gujarat when Humayun was overthrown by Sher Shah in 1 J9 In Gujarat Muhammad Ghaus established various centers of Shattari teaching, most importantly at Ahmedabad and Broach.

Here, as in some of the other points, one sees how fine can Teenagers getting fucked xxx hardcore the line between eclecticism and contradiction. Since these raids had been steadily pushing Maharashtrian and Telugu warriors from defeated dynasties in the northern Deccan to the southern Deccan, Sxcc habashi, especially Sxcc habashi region immediately south of the Tungabhadra River in Karnataka.

Curtin and John R. Smail, for directing my attention and interests to social history and the study of culture contact. Finally Sxcc habashi died in the year a. Yazdani, ed, Sxcc habashi.

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One son was murdered by non-Muslims in Sagar, one fled to Gulbarga, and the Sxcc habashi two to Awadh. In Marathi bhakti this was the abhang, a short lyrical utterance expressing religious longing ; 32 in Lingayat bhakti it was the vachana, a type of popular Kannada verse that commended the Lingayat creed and, requiring no learning to understand, flooded the Kannada-speaking country- side.

Persian lithograph Bombay,pp. Hereafter referred to as Basatin. I am much obliged to the directors, archivists, and librarians of these institutions for the patience and kindness they xx Preface showed in allowing me to utilize their Sxcc habashi. We have already noted the hostility that state Shi'ism in Sxcc habashi Iran harbored for Sufis.

One son was murdered by non-Muslims in Sagar, one fled to Gulbarga, and the other two to Awadh. Stimulated by the increasing influence Sxcc habashi the isna-ashari ' ulamaSxcc habashi, particularly those Arab immigrants who were imbued with a traditional Shi'a enmity to Sufism, official hostility toward Sufi brotherhoods became more manifest throughout the sixteenth century, Sxcc habashi.

But the city-state of Bijapur is preferable for several reasons. But in the late twelfth century this empire broke up, Sxcc habashi, representing one of the early cases of an Indian political entity crumbling before Army hot sex forces of linguistic regionalism.

Sxcc habashi, ed. Sikandar 0 in Bijapur at any one time — a figure that would include native- born Deccanis as well as migrants— it may be presumed that even though the number of migrants decreased toward the end of the Sxcc habashi, the total number of Sufis living in Bijapur must have continued to increase.

On the one hand they were, as ghazis, fighters Sxcc habashi Islam; on Sxcc habashi other they were, as murids, fanatically devoted followers of their pir. Frykenberg, ed. Indeed, Sxcc habashi, they provide Sxcc habashi the Sxcc habashi candid pictures of how Sufis lived. Instead of returning north with the armies, however, this group remained and settled in the upper Deccan. Most of the Sufis of Bijapur who migrated to the city from the mid-fourteenth century belonged to the Chishti, the Qadiri, or the Shattari orders, each of which had already Sxcc habashi con- siderable development in various parts of the Indian subcontinent before becoming significant in Bijapur.

The Chishti order, which was the earliest Sufi order introduced in India, had flourished in Delhi since the early thirteenth century, Sxcc habashi. Hereafter cited as Rauzat, copy a.

Because this independent tradition of medieval Deccan culture provided the environment in which the Sufis of Bijapur lived, several salient aspects of that culture should be emphasized. Clearly, if the Chishti order were to survive in India in its vibrant tariqa phase Sxcc habashi could not follow the examples provided bv the Sufis of Delhi and Gulbarga. Bijapur Plateau to the Coming of Islam became after 1 the southernmost provincial seat of the Yadava dynasty, Sxcc habashi.

This opened an era of repeated raids on the Deccan by armies of the Delhi Sxcc habashi. The greater part of the study, however, concerns Sufis of the seventeenth century, Sxcc habashi, as most of them lived during the height of the 'Adil Shahi dynasty Many scholars of Sufism, Sxcc habashi, including in this century such eminent authorities Sxcc habashi A.

Arberry, L. Massignon, and R. Sherwani and Professor Joshi. On the one hand they were, as ghazis, fighters for Islam; on the other they were, Sxcc habashi, as murids, Sxcc habashi, fanatically devoted followers of their pir.

Correspondingly, Sufism now became more a devotional than a mystical movement. He did agree, however, to send his grandson to Bidar. More than xxi Preface that, numerous and lengthy talks with them gave me a feel for the subject of my Sxcc habashi that no amount of reading could ever have accomplished. Born in Delhi inGisudaraz moved to Daulatabad with his father when Muhammad bin Tughluq ordered the Sufis of Delhi to migrate there, Sxcc habashi. Even in tazkiras that did serve a cult, present or past, there is still much information whose accuracy is highly probable.

But the tenuous nature of Muslim rule in Bijapur at this early date and the degree to which Islam had accommodated itself to indigenous forms is suggested by the very architecture of the Karim al-Din Mosque, certainly 53 The archeologist Henry Cousens wrote, without citing his authority, that Karim al-Din was the son of the Khalaji general Malik Kafur, and that the latter had settled in Bijapur for some time before he died Cousens, Architectural Remains, p. A third group of Deccanis consisted of the Abyssinians or Habashisthe black slaves brought by sea from Ethiopia to the Konkan Coast and sold there by Arab traders, and after by Portuguese traders, Sxcc habashi, to Muslim nobles on the plateau.

I am most indebted to Mr, Sxcc habashi. Safdar Shafeeq Ahmad for his invaluable services in helping locate relevant docu- ments in Hyderabad and Bijapur, and in assisting me in their interpretation.

On the other hand, the various social functions performed by Sufis have seemed to provide a far more Sxcc habashi way Sxcc habashi dif- ferentiating the various individuals encompassed in this study, Sxcc habashi. Both instances indicate the potential of the pir-murid relationship, when it is one of absolute subservience of the murid to the pir and when Sxcc habashi latter is placed in conditions of extreme social and political instability, to become a commander-soldier relationship, Sxcc habashi.

See Sxcc habashi for references. His companions — mendicants faqirdisciples muridand soldiers Sxcc habashi — numbered over seven hundred. Inmates at the Chishti khatiaqahs lived a communal life, 1 Khurasan included what is today northeastern Iran, Sxcc habashi, western Afghani- stan, and Soviet Central Asia south of the Oxus River.

Settlement in the Shi'a Period of Sxcc habashi Shahi Rule, It would be impossible to guess the total number of Sufis who lived in Bijapur at any one Sxcc habashi. They began to arrive around the time of the first invasions from Delhi, and began to disappear around the time of the establish- ment of the Bahmani Kingdom The fifty-year period encompassed by these two events, from toSxcc habashi, thus saw the passing of the Bijapur plateau from Dar al-Harb to Dar al-lslam.

In view of the tendency of both oral and written traditions to extol or even fabricate the pious qualities of Sufis, it is most likely that Pir Ma'bari, like Sufi Sarmast, Sxcc habashi, was in reality a militant Sufi and only acquired the reputation of a peaceful missionary through gen- erations of oral transmission of his life story.

Persian lithograph Hyderabad: Saiyidi Press, Sxcc habashi,pp. In any case, the figures would necessarily be small since the Sufis of Bijapur at all times represented only a tiny elite class in the society in which they lived. Another recent study of Srilanka new sex videos 'Adil Shahi Sultanate, D.

Fukazawa, using mainly Marathi sources, has treated the same topic in somewhat greater depth. Sufis of both orders resided in cities, Sxcc habashi, were well integrated with Islamic orthodoxy, and had accommo- dated themselves with local political authority.

There are in the Indian sub- continent a number of centers of Islamic civilization which, for purposes of analyzing the social roles of medieval Sufis in the Hindu environment, might appear to have served as satisfactorily as the one used. Having lived on the coasts and the plateau for many centuries and having inter- married considerably with indigenous peoples, they naturally re- garded the Deccan as their home.

In the fifteenth century another Sufi order, the Qadiri order, became firmly en- trenched in the Deccan plateau. Persian printed edition Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal,p. It remained as such from towhen a new Sxcc habashi state, the Bahmani Kingdom, opened a period of a closer, deeper, and more permanent Islamic rule over the plateau.

The third and fourth categories of primary sources used in this study were non-Sufi in origin but proved of immense value in painting in the background against which the principal subjects of this study were viewed.

Hereafter cited as Rauzat, copy a. The tazkiras invariably make reference to events, persons, or places that were not necessarily intrinsic to the lives of the Sufis but that can be checked against other, non- hagiographic, sources for their accuracy.

In this stage a Sufi s direct com- munion with God was replaced by the veneration and even worship of a pir who now occupied the position of spiritual intermediary between the disciple and God.

Moreover the headship of most ta if as, particu- larly in India, became mainly hereditary as blood replaced merit as the chief criterion of succession. Hindus were defeated and the Muslims were victorious. The author, while in the service of the Nizam of Sxcc habashi Zubairi gives details of his sources in his preface. Report dreams to your pirwithout exaggeration. This source mentions ninety-six burial sites of Sufis within the city walls, and one hundred eighty- nine outside the walls.

Kurnool is located about ijo miles east by south- east of Bijapur on the Tungabhadra River near the point where that river joins the Sxcc habashi. The political separation of the rebel Bahmani dynasty from the Delhi Sultanate had cut off the handful of settlers in the Deccan from the Iranian plateau, to which sultans and emperors of Delhi traditionally looked for recruiting Muslim administrators.

This chronological discrepancy might be resolved in several ways. Indeed, for some Sufi groups the transition from the second to the third stage was a clearly observable phenomenon occurring in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Bijapur.

The Turkish and Iranian cases mentioned above indicate that the Warrior Sufis of Bijapur were not unique in the militant roles they played in the early fourteenth century. Derived mainly from the Spanish-Arab mystic Ibn 'Arabi d. We know from Arab accounts writ- ten around the turn of the fourteenth century that flourishing colonies of Muslim merchants then lived along this coast.

These tombs, in India called dargahs, generally replaced khanaqahs as the physical struc- tures upon which Sufi movements were based. First among them was the Chishti tradition of avoiding the court and courtly affairs. How great is my Majesty! For a discussion of the archeological remains of this tradition see pp. On the other hand some of the larger tombs, Sxcc habashi, called dargahs, have become centers of a living popular religion.

Politically, it meant that Muslims were able to rule the area until the chaotic eighteenth century when, among other things, a resurgence of Marathi culturalism swept over the region. This is due in the first instance to the greater amount of time that elapsed between their lives and the recording of their lives in hagiographic literature, Sxcc habashi, much of which was not compiled until as late as the nineteenth century.

There, a zealous and anti-Muslim raja named Kumaram wished to expel him. One interpretation would be that Sufi Sarmast lived at a slightly Sxcc habashi time than that given in this account, and that he was actually associated with an expedition to Sagar led by Lakhi Khan Sxcc habashi the Sxcc habashi 3 20s.

Moreover, if this narrative were entirely legendary, there would be no need for it to have gone beyond Sxcc habashi description of Trans italiana jihad Sxcc habashi holy war against Kumara Ram with perhaps some elaborations and embellishments built around Sxcc habashi event. And religiously, it Sxcc habashi that Sufis would appear having an altogether different nature than their warlike predecessors who had initially smashed into the Bijapur Sxcc habashi as religious auxiliaries to Khalaji and Tughluq imperialists.

Socially and culturally the area tends to be more of a mosaic than a relative unitary kind of social structure. There, a zealous and anti-Muslim raja named Kumaram wished to expel him. The kingdom did not assume full titles of sovereignty, however, Sxcc habashi, until after the last of the Bahmani royal family died c.

They began to arrive around the time of the first invasions from Delhi, Sxcc habashi, and began to disappear around the time of the establish- ment of the Bahmani Kingdom The fifty-year period encompassed by Sxcc habashi two events, from tothus saw the passing of the Bijapur plateau from Dar al-Harb to Dar al-lslam. Although Sufi Sarmast and Pir Ma'bari Khandayat shared in common Nice voice by six affiliation with Muslim Sxcc habashi in the Deccan, there were other Sufis who appeared in the Bijapur plateau in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries who, though not directly linked with any known military expedition, are nonethe- less remembered for their combative prowess and martyrdom, Sxcc habashi.

Although it was compiled as late as 1, his Basatin al-Salatin was based on a number of contemporary sources that it superseded and others that no longer exist. Then Yusuf 'Add Khan everywhere proclaimed the Shi'a faith in [sic], and Chanda Husaini renounced their friendship, becoming absorbed in the remembrance of God. Moreover, the fact that Chanda Husaini was Arab and not Iranian suggests that doctrinal tensions between Sufism and Shi'ism did indeed run deep, Sxcc habashi, quite apart from the hostilities generated when Shi'ism be- came the state religion of Iran.

According to such an interpretation certain facts and legends per- taining to the officers or sultans of Delhi, particularly 'Ala al-Din Khalaji, Malik Sxcc habashi, and Muhammad bin Tughluq, became through centuries of oral transmission attributed to some real or fictitious Sufi, Sxcc habashi.

From the city of Bidar thus became the first, and until the seventeenth Sxcc habashi perhaps the most important, Qadiri center in India, Sxcc habashi. This was the khanaqahthe humble rest- 7 Oxford: Oxford University Press, From the ninth Sxcc habashi the twelfth century such khanaqahs could be found all over Sxcc habashi Islamic world, especially on the Islamic frontier, where they played important roles in integrating non-Muslims into the Islamic community.

If the Sufi had been associated with one of the 70age armies of Delhi, Sxcc habashi, both his having settled in the hill fort of Sagar and his having received military assistance from several Afghan commanders become plausible. The rest of Sxcc habashi Hindus, having ac- cepted tributary status, made peace. And although Chishtis were by no means the only Indian Sufis to emphasize this doctrine, it was they who were most consistently identified Sxcc habashi it, Sxcc habashi.

Insofar as the attainment Chikachiki gareko sex video such affinity involved a discipline or method to Sxcc habashi learned and followed, a tradition of the master and his circle of pupils soon characterized this early phase. Many Shattaris of Gujarat claiming spiritual lineage from Wajih al-Din or Muham- mad Ghaus migrated to Bijapur about the same time that Sufis of the Qadiri order were migrating to Bijapur from Bidar, that is, during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

See also Thurston, Castes and Tribes, Sxcc habashi, iv, p. By contrast, the Chishti order is represented Sxcc habashi in India and its major spiritual center is in Ajmer, Rajasthan, Sxcc habashi, location of Sxcc habashi shrine of Mu'in al-Din Chishti. When such cross-verification of data is found — the occurrence of accu- rate historical information in the hagiographic literature or of hagiographic information in the historical literature — the re- searcher can assume that the accounts of the lives of the Sufis have been preserved in an accurate form.

The power of this class became especially formidable, Sxcc habashi, moreover, through the influence of Arab Shi'a scholars and divines who migrated to Iran and found government employment where their sect had been declared the official creed.

From about the thirteenth century two distinct core areas formed on both the northern and southern extremities of the plateau. It remained as such from towhen a new Muslim state, the Bahmani Kingdom, opened a period of a Sxcc habashi, deeper, and more permanent Islamic rule over the plateau. About this time, too, he became the spiritual guide to the future founder of the Bahmani Kingdom, 'Ala al-Din Hasan. While it is true that the Jangams had probably not become a closed and privileged caste until around the seventeenth century, there were other social institutions among the Lingayats that had achieved definite shape before that time.

His companions — mendicants faqirdisciples muridand soldiers ghazi — numbered over seven hundred. While such traditions may still be distorted, they would not contain the same type of distortions that are typical of such cults.

From this information, given in Table 1, it is possi- ble to make several broad generalizations. This Sxcc habashi normally left for the readers to do. Another type is the discourses malfuzator the sayings of a Sufi as recorded by one of his disciples. For an excellent survey of the history of Sxcc habashi study of Sufism, see A. Such ritualistic acts did not necessarily make a man a mystic; nor did they necessarily join him with a Sufi brotherhood. If, then, Sufi Sarmast received any assistance from officers of the Delhi Sultanate, it could not have been beforewhich was when such armies first pene- trated as far south as Sagar.

Poets such as Jnanadeva fl. The Warrior Sufi thus appears as the most typical kind of Sufi during the interven- ing half century when this part of the Deccan was subjected to repeated raids by armies from the North and was experiencing the social turmoil that accompanied the transition from Yadava to Muslim rule.

But the tenuous nature of Muslim rule in Bijapur at this early date and the degree to which Islam had accommodated itself to indigenous forms is suggested by the very architecture of the Karim al-Din Mosque, certainly 53 The archeologist Henry Cousens wrote, Sxcc habashi, without citing his authority, that Karim al-Din was the son of the Khalaji general Malik Kafur, and that the Sxcc habashi had settled in Bijapur for some time before he died Cousens, Sxcc habashi, Architectural Remains, Sxcc habashi, p.

In sum, the Warrior Sufi may be seen as one of the earliest products that arose from the contact Black hanjob Arab Islamic and Sxcc habashi civilizations. This was the Lingayat movement, Sxcc habashi known as Virasaivism. Sxcc habashi to impose direct administrative control over Maharashtra, the new sultan marched to Devagiri in and, after beheading the refractory son-in-law of Ramadeva, established a tradition of lasting Muslim political rule in the Deccan.

I am particularly grateful to the many institutions in England, India, and Pakistan whose willing assistance made my research possible. Also significant is his stress on being a strict Sunni, 44 M. Nicholson, ed. Thence-forward the history of the domestic affairs of the Deccan is mainly a record pf this strife, which contributed in no small measure to the disintegration of the [ Bahmani ] kingdom and afterwards to the weakness of the states which rose on its Sxcc habashi. Varying from large mausoleums twenty feet in height with cupola or dome, to simple tombstones raised only several 1 Henry Cousens, Sxcc habashi, Notes on the Buildings and Other Antiquarian Remains at Bijapur Bombay: Government Central Press,p.

Ziauddin Ahmed Shakeb, an archivist at the State Archives of Andhra Pradesh, Sxcc habashi, was most helpful in locating manuscripts in private collections in Hyderabad as well as in the State Archives. By the beginning of the four- Sxcc habashi century the Bijapur plateau represented not only a fluid shatter zone located between the stable Marathi and Kannada core regions, Sxcc habashi, but also a volatile frontier zone located between an ag- gressive, Sxcc habashi, expanding Islamic state to the north and a new state to the south — the Vijayanagar Empire — which owed Celebrety sexs existence mainly to Hindu reaction to the movements to the North.

All agriculture on the Bijapur plateau, Sxcc habashi, however, de- pends upon a short Girl Boobs fuck capricious summer monsoon, resulting 1 As used in this study, the Bijapur plateau refers to that Sxcc habashi of the western Sxcc habashi plateau that had been most persistently administered by the 'Add Shahi dynasty of Bijapur It is bounded on the north by the Balaghat Range, Sxcc habashi, on the west by the Western Ghats, on the south by the Tungabhadra River, and on the east by the 78th meridian, there being no natural barrier between the Kingdom of Bijapur and the neighbor- ing Kingdom of Golconda to the east.

I owe a deep indebtedness to Professor Robert E, Sxcc habashi. Frykenberg who, during my early graduate career at the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, urged me to apply my knowledge of Persian to the study of Indian history. Persian lithograph 2 vols, Sxcc habashi. Although its founder in India, Mu'in al-Din Chishti d.

In support of this interpretation one could cite the likelihood that the date of the 8 G. Elliot and Dowson, History of India, in, p. This development allowed the Deccani class, of which the Abyssinian blacks were one part, to entrench themselves in posi- Sxcc habashi that the Foreigner class would never again recover.

Yearly he sent a number of empty ships to the Persian Gulf for the purpose of bringing soldiers, artists, and administrators to serve at his court. Hagiographia is simply biography designed, and consequently distorted, to serve the cult of the saints. We know from Orgasm blond accounts writ- ten around the turn of the fourteenth century that flourishing colonies of Muslim merchants then lived along this coast, Sxcc habashi.

More than this, insofar Sxcc habashi the new Indo-Muslim states were to become reconciled to and embedded within existing Hindu social and political structures, the new conditions that prevailed under these states precluded the very possibility of holy war. This in part explains why it was only after the mid-fourteenth century that Sufis belonging to orders had become common in Bijapur.

But it is by no means necessary to dismiss as inspired fiction the entirety of this literature. This is the works written by the most promi- nent Sufis, which in turn fall into two classes: mystical literature and popular literature. In sum, what social roles did the Sufis of Bijapur play in relation to the 'ulama, the court, and the non-Muslim population?

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Having seen his fine virtues and uncommon justice, many Hindus of that time became Muslims. History of Sxcc habashi, hi, Sxcc habashi, pp.

Finally there is the work of G. Khare, who has performed a great service to the study of Bijapur by publishing and interpreting a number of old Marathi documents he has found in Maharashtra. The Shi'ism of the Turkoman tribes was of an extreme variety ghulat which frequently embraced the heretical notions that 'Ali and the imams descended from him, Sxcc habashi, or indeed any particularly charis- 60 H, Sxcc habashi. Gibb and H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the W est, Sxcc habashi, 1, pt, Sxcc habashi.

Like Anak Riau Abyssinians, Hindu converts were never fully accepted by the elitist Foreigner class, and so they also identified with other Deccanis.

The contemporary chronicler Fazl Allah bin Ruzbihan Khunji, though a Sunni and a Remise of the Safawi movement, confirms that the movement was seized by a ghazi spirit. The Malik gave him a field, at the village of Bitur, the measurement being 24 nitans with 24 cubits and made it free from taxes and obstructions.

As for the first of these, one may note that it was not only its location on the frontiers of Islam that gave the movement its ghazi aspect, but also that its main adherents were rural and illiter- ate Turkoman tribesmen whose vision of Islam differed vastly from that held Porno japonaise xxl the Islamic metropolis.

Accordingly, he and his successors actively solicited the support and coopera- tion of any Sufi who, because of his popularity with large num- bers of non-elite groups, was thought to be capable of carrying the roots of Bahmani power deeper in public confidence. Revaiya, Sxcc habashi, the carpenter from Salehautage modern Salotgi near Bijapur built the mosque. The shaikh declined, but sent in his place his favorite disciple.

Sherwani and P. Joshi, eds. As these areas had developed on either side of the central Bijapur plateau, Islam was able to flourish along the resulting cultural fault line. In their place was substituted the Sxcc habashi creed, open to all persons, which accorded absolute Sxcc habashi to Siva, Sxcc habashi.

Having seen his fine virtues and uncommon justice, many Hindus of that time became Muslims, Sxcc habashi. It was also he who pointed out to me the gross imbalance in Sxcc habashi historiography of medieval India in favor of the northern part of the subcontinent, particu- larly the Mughal Empire, and suggested that I pursue the study of the Deccan in general, and the Kingdom of Bijapur in par- ticular.

The disappearance of the Warrior Sufi may be credited partly to the assimilative character of Hindu civilization, which has usually succeeded in at least modifying if not fully absorbing the many foreign elements that have been introduced into the subcontinent, and partly also to the estab- lishment from the mid-fourteenth century of stable Indo-Muslim states on the Bijapur plateau.

Persian printed edition Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal,p, Sxcc habashi. Revaiya, the carpenter from Salehautage modern Salotgi near Bijapur built the mosque. It is no more the heart of the Muslim world which attracts them Overnight they have become gazis fighting Sxcc habashi unbelievers along the Muslim frontiers of the north. Of all the Sufis of Bijapur those who appeared in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries are perhaps the most difficult to understand.

Moreover, if this narrative were entirely legendary, there would be no need for it to have gone beyond a description of his jihad or holy war against Kumara Ram with perhaps some elaborations and embellishments built Sxcc habashi that Sxcc habashi. The axial figure, whether he was storming walls or building them, was the warrior saint. It is necessary here to define the spatial, Karen leni, and conceptual limits Sxcc habashi this study.

This passage was cited by Thomas W. Arnold in his Preaching of Islam to Breast family his contention that the most important agents in the spread of Islam in the Deccan were peaceful Muslim saints. See ibid. An equally important early Lingayat institution was the guru in his Sxcc habashi capacity as mediator between a Lingayat devotee and the god Siva.

Since death on Jihad was the only sure passport to Paradise, it came about that in the early days ascetics had generally taken a promi- nent part in the frontier warfare, Sxcc habashi.

Remaining open until midnight each day, the Chishti khanaqahs received all sorts of people — scholars, politicians, sol- diers, Hindu yogis — who would come to receive blessings or guidance from the piror simply to tell him their worldly con- cerns. History of India, hi, p. In their psychological appeal, philosophical underpinnings, and historical development, these two civilizations are diametrically opposed. Later Settlement of Sufis in Bijapur wrote K, Sxcc habashi.

In this new political situation several Chishti Sufis gravi- tated to Gulbarga, but in doing so they, unlike their spiritual forefathers in North India, developed close relations with the court. While conducting my research in India I was fortunate in having conversations with a number of noted scholars in the field of medieval Indian history.

Nilakanta Sastri and N. Venkataramanayya, Further Sources of Vijayanagara History 3 vols. But the broad and integrative social roles of the village math as well as the immense spiritual and social importance of the guru certainly predated the seventeenth century, and were ongoing traditions when Sufis first came to Bijapur. Although the mystical literature differs little in substance from the classical statements of Islamic mysti- cism that had emerged in the Islamic heartland during the first xviii five centuries a.

See N, Sxcc habashi. Yet such individuals are also generally pictured in the same literature as militant champions of Islam. Extensive research in various institutions in Hyderabad, both private and public, eventually led me to another broad category Sxcc habashi primary sources. The Deccanis held out long enough that 'Ah yielded and allowed the mosque to remain a Sunni preserve. It appears, however, that they did not migrate to Bijapur as long as that kingdom, like Safawi Iran, was under isna-ashari Shi'a domination.

Nor is it feasible in this study to take the Sufi order as the unit of analysis. The significance of this trading tradition as an impor- tant type of Muslim influence in the Deccan was to be Sxcc habashi in the impact these seaports subsequently exerted on the economic and religious history Sxcc habashi the Kingdom of Bijapur.

It is, Sxcc habashi, moreover, the only comprehensive history of the entire 'Add Shahi dynasty whose reign over Bijapur coincides with most of the period Sxcc habashi review in this study. From another perspective, however, it can be cogently argued that a real Sufi Sarmast did in fact exist apart from fourteenth- century Muslim officers or legends of such officers, Sxcc habashi, but that he was not independent from the Muslim armies.

It is therefore likely that when Pir Ma'bari Khandayat separated himself from the army with which he was so clearly associated, the local population would hardly have Sxcc habashi him, Sxcc habashi. Shaikh 'Ali Pahlavan, a companion of Sufi Sarmast, migrated to a town near Kurnool where he and his followers became engaged in a struggle with Hindus, again described as a jihad, and were killed.

This chronological discrepancy might be resolved in several ways. Since by nature he was fundamentally Sxcc habashi combative, Sufi Sarmast spread the religion of Muhammad and befriended the hearts of Hindus, Sxcc habashi.

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